K.W.Ho歷史科【DSE-2020-Essay-04】
巴黎和約(1919-23)在什麼程度導致了第二次世界大戰的爆發？試參考1919-39年間的歐洲歷史，解釋你的看法。
History丨DSE丨論述題Essay
巴黎和約(1919-23)在什麼程度導致了第二次世界大戰的爆發？試參考1919-39年間的歐洲歷史，解釋你的看法。
History丨DSE丨論述題Essay
注意：此題目原是DSE歷屆試題，但為免侵犯版權，題目經過修改，同學可以按試題之年份及題號自行查閱原題目。以下內容乃K.W.Ho之補習教材，於課堂教授， 內容乃配合K.W.Ho之答題方法及風格所製作，同時內容可能有錯誤之處以供在課堂上糾正。非補習學生在未有得到課堂教學的情況下錯誤使用，恕不負責，同學請敬請留意。
原題目題號：DSE-2020-Essay-04
巴黎和約(1919-23)在什麼程度導致了第二次世界大戰的爆發？試參考1919-39年間的歐洲歷史，解釋你的看法。
二次大戰在一次大戰結束後僅二十年後就爆發。其中，巴黎和約的不當可謂是責無旁貸，和約不單導致了德國和意大利的強烈不滿，同時，「民族自決」原則所引伸的問題也成為日後侵略的有利氛圍，最終使大戰爆發必不可免，
在很大程度上導致了二次大戰的爆發。儘管極權主義的興起、經濟大蕭條和綏靖政策等因素也是二次大戰爆發的成因之一，但重要性明顯較小。
巴黎和約導致了德國的強烈不滿，終使德國侵略再起，觸發二次大戰。 由於《凡爾賽條約》極度苛刻，不但要求德國賠償330億美元，更限制德國陸軍人數至10萬人和承擔所有戰爭罪責等，使德人對戰勝國產生強烈的仇視情緒。 同時，威瑪共和政府簽訂喪權辱國的條約，使其一上台就得不到人民的支持。在此情況下，納粹希特拉打著推翻《凡爾賽條約》的旗號而得到人民的廣泛支持，更於1933年上台後逐步推翻《凡爾賽條約》， 如於1935年單方面廢除條約中有關限制軍事的條款，重新實行徵兵制及建立海、空軍。及後，又於1936年撕毀條約，將萊茵河區重新軍事化。更甚，《凡爾賽條約》的侮辱性安排令德國一直渴望報復，並同時希望恢復強國地位， 故積極進行擴張及侵略，以彌補巴黎和約中所受的民族屈辱，例如於1939年3月入侵捷克全境。及後，因《凡爾賽條約》中將但澤市劃分予波蘭，令東普魯士與德國本土分離，德國為求取回但澤市，於1939年9月1日突襲波蘭， 大戰最終也在《凡爾賽條約》衍生的問題下爆發。 可見，巴黎和約激發起德國的復仇情緒，令二次大戰不可避免地必然爆發。
巴黎和約亦令意大利成為最不滿的戰勝國，往後成為挑起大戰爆發的侵略國之一。巴黎和約導致了意大利的強烈不滿，由於英、法於1915年倫敦會議中以阜姆及達爾馬西亞等地利誘意大利轉投協約國陣營。 但於和會中，英、法並未有兌現諾言，只在《聖澤門條約》中給予提洛爾和伊斯特里亞予意大利，使意人極之不滿，成為最不滿的戰勝國，大大助長了1922年強勢的墨索里尼上台，埋下了法西斯意大利擴張的種子。 例如墨索里尼治下的意大利於1923年已經炮轟希臘的科孚島，又於1924年迫使南斯拉夫交出阜姆和1926年迫使阿爾巴尼亞成為其保護國，不斷透過侵略以彌補其於巴黎和約中所未能取得之領土和屈辱。至1930年代末， 墨索里尼的野心更盛，與同樣在巴黎和約中受到屈辱的德國締結《柏林—羅馬軸心》(1936年)，互相支持侵略。於1939年3月德國入侵捷克後，意大利亦不甘示弱於4月出兵阿爾巴尼亞。同年5月，意、德更締結《鋼鐵條約》， 建立起侵略同盟，最終大戰亦在德、意的侵略底下變得勢不可擋。可見，巴黎和約挑起了意大利的不滿，令意大利成為大戰爆發的重要幫兇。
巴黎和約所採用的「民族自決」原則亦成為了大戰爆發的重因。威爾遜於巴黎和會中提出了「民族自決」的原則，允許同一民族的人們自治及建國，例如在《聖澤門條約》中建立了波蘭及捷克斯洛伐克等國。 然而，「民族自決」的原則存有極大的不公，因德國作為戰敗國，被排除出「民族自決」的原則外，列強更把日耳曼人居住的聚居地割讓予其他國家，例如《凡爾賽條約》中禁止德國與擁有600萬日耳曼人居住的奧地利合併； 《聖澤門條約》中將擁有300萬人居住的蘇台德區在《聖澤門條約》中交予捷克斯洛伐克。此等不公的安排均激起德國的強烈不滿，日後勢必推翻條約，例如1938年就與奧地利合併及吞併蘇台德區。 此外，巴黎和約忽視了勢力均衡的重大原則，新成立的民族小國過於弱小，缺乏強大的經濟及軍事實力以對抗周遭的列強，因此容易成為侵略國的目標，例如1939年時德國兵不血刃就吞併了捷克，及後又將其利爪伸向波蘭， 於同年9月突襲波蘭，最終成為大戰爆發的導火線。可見，巴黎和約中「民族自決」原則的不公及不當成為了大戰爆發的誘發劑。
相比巴黎和約的重要性，其他因素只在小程度上導致了二次大戰的爆發。
其一，極權主義的興起也是導致二次大戰的要因，但重要性不及巴黎和約。 極權國家的侵略行動一步一步地將世界推進戰火之中，例如德、意、日於1937年締結了「柏林—羅馬—東京軸心」， 建立起侵略同盟，四處侵略，例如意大利於1939年入侵阿爾巴尼亞；德國先於1938年吞併奧地利及蘇台德區，後於1939年吞併捷克，最終，大戰於德國突襲波蘭後爆發。然而，巴黎和約的重要性大於極權主義的興起。 就因果關係，巴黎和約是導致極權主義興起的要因。意大利方面，意大利政府在巴黎和約中未能獲得阜姆和達爾馬西亞等地而大失民心，墨索里尼藉戰後惡劣的經濟狀況及動盪的局勢而「進軍羅馬」，於1922年取得政權， 並在往後積極擴張。德國方面，希特拉藉德國人對《凡爾賽條約》的強烈的不滿情緒而上台，希望打破條約的束縛，恢復強國地位，最終導致二戰爆發。可見，巴黎和約才是二次大戰爆發的根本性因素。
其二，雖然經濟大蕭條對於二次大戰爆發有一定重要性，但亦不及巴黎和約為之重要。1929年的世界經濟大蕭條一方面使英、法等民主國家陷入經濟困境，迫使其於1930年代採綏靖政策以滿足侵略國的野心。 同時，也造成了惡劣了的經濟環境，一方面營造起有利納粹希特拉崛起的溫床，希特拉上台後為了改善德國國內經濟狀況，尋找「生存空間」，所以不斷擴張，例如於1939年吞併捷克，取得更多的領土和資源， 最終二次大戰在德國的接連侵略下爆發。然而，巴黎和約的重要性更大。就因果關係而言，《凡爾賽條約》令美國的經濟大蕭條產生連鎖反應，諸連德國。由於和約中要求德國賠款330億美元的巨額賠款， 結果令德國需要依靠美國的借貸計劃，包括「道茲計劃」(1924年)和「楊格計劃」(1929年)，結果當經濟大蕭條一出現，美國撤回對德國的貸款，造成連鎖反應，令德國失業人數多達600萬人， 造成了希特拉的上台和往後的侵略出現。可見，凡爾賽和約的缺失較經濟大蕭條的影響重要。
其三，綏靖政策是導致大戰爆發的因素之一，但重要性亦不及巴黎和約。英法兩國採用綏靖政策，以退讓﹑妥協的外交手段試圖滿足侵略國的野心，如1938年慕尼黑會議中英法兩國將蘇台德區割讓予德，卻造成反效果， 增加其侵略的野心，於1939年侵吞併捷克全境，導致大戰的來臨。然而，巴黎和約的重要性更大。就因果關係而言，巴黎和約的缺失為綏靖政策的出現提供了重要的心理基礎。 由於英國認為《凡爾賽和約》對德國的安排過於苛刻，因此令日後英國傾向同情德國，認為德國只是取回其應有的權益，結果對德採取綏靖政策，例如德國於1935年重新實行徵兵制及擴建海軍時，英國不但未有制止德國， 更與德國簽訂《英德海軍協定》，允許其擴建海軍。及後，在慕尼黑會議中亦認為德國要求取得蘇台德區也只是基於巴黎和約將德國排除在「民族自決」外，誤信德國取回應有權益後便會停止侵略。 可見，巴黎和約的是導致綏靖政策出現的重要，繼而才助長了德國的侵略，重要性較綏靖政策大。
總括而言，巴黎和約造就了德國和意大利分別成為了最不滿的戰敗國和戰勝國，成為兩國極權主義興起的要因，同時「民族自決」原則的不公和不當也營造起有利的環境予侵略國侵略。 因此，巴黎和約早已埋下二次大戰爆發的伏線，在很大程度上導致了二次大戰的爆發。
巴黎和約導致了德國的強烈不滿，終使德國侵略再起，觸發二次大戰。 由於《凡爾賽條約》極度苛刻，不但要求德國賠償330億美元，更限制德國陸軍人數至10萬人和承擔所有戰爭罪責等，使德人對戰勝國產生強烈的仇視情緒。 同時，威瑪共和政府簽訂喪權辱國的條約，使其一上台就得不到人民的支持。在此情況下，納粹希特拉打著推翻《凡爾賽條約》的旗號而得到人民的廣泛支持，更於1933年上台後逐步推翻《凡爾賽條約》， 如於1935年單方面廢除條約中有關限制軍事的條款，重新實行徵兵制及建立海、空軍。及後，又於1936年撕毀條約，將萊茵河區重新軍事化。更甚，《凡爾賽條約》的侮辱性安排令德國一直渴望報復，並同時希望恢復強國地位， 故積極進行擴張及侵略，以彌補巴黎和約中所受的民族屈辱，例如於1939年3月入侵捷克全境。及後，因《凡爾賽條約》中將但澤市劃分予波蘭，令東普魯士與德國本土分離，德國為求取回但澤市，於1939年9月1日突襲波蘭， 大戰最終也在《凡爾賽條約》衍生的問題下爆發。 可見，巴黎和約激發起德國的復仇情緒，令二次大戰不可避免地必然爆發。
巴黎和約亦令意大利成為最不滿的戰勝國，往後成為挑起大戰爆發的侵略國之一。巴黎和約導致了意大利的強烈不滿，由於英、法於1915年倫敦會議中以阜姆及達爾馬西亞等地利誘意大利轉投協約國陣營。 但於和會中，英、法並未有兌現諾言，只在《聖澤門條約》中給予提洛爾和伊斯特里亞予意大利，使意人極之不滿，成為最不滿的戰勝國，大大助長了1922年強勢的墨索里尼上台，埋下了法西斯意大利擴張的種子。 例如墨索里尼治下的意大利於1923年已經炮轟希臘的科孚島，又於1924年迫使南斯拉夫交出阜姆和1926年迫使阿爾巴尼亞成為其保護國，不斷透過侵略以彌補其於巴黎和約中所未能取得之領土和屈辱。至1930年代末， 墨索里尼的野心更盛，與同樣在巴黎和約中受到屈辱的德國締結《柏林—羅馬軸心》(1936年)，互相支持侵略。於1939年3月德國入侵捷克後，意大利亦不甘示弱於4月出兵阿爾巴尼亞。同年5月，意、德更締結《鋼鐵條約》， 建立起侵略同盟，最終大戰亦在德、意的侵略底下變得勢不可擋。可見，巴黎和約挑起了意大利的不滿，令意大利成為大戰爆發的重要幫兇。
巴黎和約所採用的「民族自決」原則亦成為了大戰爆發的重因。威爾遜於巴黎和會中提出了「民族自決」的原則，允許同一民族的人們自治及建國，例如在《聖澤門條約》中建立了波蘭及捷克斯洛伐克等國。 然而，「民族自決」的原則存有極大的不公，因德國作為戰敗國，被排除出「民族自決」的原則外，列強更把日耳曼人居住的聚居地割讓予其他國家，例如《凡爾賽條約》中禁止德國與擁有600萬日耳曼人居住的奧地利合併； 《聖澤門條約》中將擁有300萬人居住的蘇台德區在《聖澤門條約》中交予捷克斯洛伐克。此等不公的安排均激起德國的強烈不滿，日後勢必推翻條約，例如1938年就與奧地利合併及吞併蘇台德區。 此外，巴黎和約忽視了勢力均衡的重大原則，新成立的民族小國過於弱小，缺乏強大的經濟及軍事實力以對抗周遭的列強，因此容易成為侵略國的目標，例如1939年時德國兵不血刃就吞併了捷克，及後又將其利爪伸向波蘭， 於同年9月突襲波蘭，最終成為大戰爆發的導火線。可見，巴黎和約中「民族自決」原則的不公及不當成為了大戰爆發的誘發劑。
相比巴黎和約的重要性，其他因素只在小程度上導致了二次大戰的爆發。
其一，極權主義的興起也是導致二次大戰的要因，但重要性不及巴黎和約。 極權國家的侵略行動一步一步地將世界推進戰火之中，例如德、意、日於1937年締結了「柏林—羅馬—東京軸心」， 建立起侵略同盟，四處侵略，例如意大利於1939年入侵阿爾巴尼亞；德國先於1938年吞併奧地利及蘇台德區，後於1939年吞併捷克，最終，大戰於德國突襲波蘭後爆發。然而，巴黎和約的重要性大於極權主義的興起。 就因果關係，巴黎和約是導致極權主義興起的要因。意大利方面，意大利政府在巴黎和約中未能獲得阜姆和達爾馬西亞等地而大失民心，墨索里尼藉戰後惡劣的經濟狀況及動盪的局勢而「進軍羅馬」，於1922年取得政權， 並在往後積極擴張。德國方面，希特拉藉德國人對《凡爾賽條約》的強烈的不滿情緒而上台，希望打破條約的束縛，恢復強國地位，最終導致二戰爆發。可見，巴黎和約才是二次大戰爆發的根本性因素。
其二，雖然經濟大蕭條對於二次大戰爆發有一定重要性，但亦不及巴黎和約為之重要。1929年的世界經濟大蕭條一方面使英、法等民主國家陷入經濟困境，迫使其於1930年代採綏靖政策以滿足侵略國的野心。 同時，也造成了惡劣了的經濟環境，一方面營造起有利納粹希特拉崛起的溫床，希特拉上台後為了改善德國國內經濟狀況，尋找「生存空間」，所以不斷擴張，例如於1939年吞併捷克，取得更多的領土和資源， 最終二次大戰在德國的接連侵略下爆發。然而，巴黎和約的重要性更大。就因果關係而言，《凡爾賽條約》令美國的經濟大蕭條產生連鎖反應，諸連德國。由於和約中要求德國賠款330億美元的巨額賠款， 結果令德國需要依靠美國的借貸計劃，包括「道茲計劃」(1924年)和「楊格計劃」(1929年)，結果當經濟大蕭條一出現，美國撤回對德國的貸款，造成連鎖反應，令德國失業人數多達600萬人， 造成了希特拉的上台和往後的侵略出現。可見，凡爾賽和約的缺失較經濟大蕭條的影響重要。
其三，綏靖政策是導致大戰爆發的因素之一，但重要性亦不及巴黎和約。英法兩國採用綏靖政策，以退讓﹑妥協的外交手段試圖滿足侵略國的野心，如1938年慕尼黑會議中英法兩國將蘇台德區割讓予德，卻造成反效果， 增加其侵略的野心，於1939年侵吞併捷克全境，導致大戰的來臨。然而，巴黎和約的重要性更大。就因果關係而言，巴黎和約的缺失為綏靖政策的出現提供了重要的心理基礎。 由於英國認為《凡爾賽和約》對德國的安排過於苛刻，因此令日後英國傾向同情德國，認為德國只是取回其應有的權益，結果對德採取綏靖政策，例如德國於1935年重新實行徵兵制及擴建海軍時，英國不但未有制止德國， 更與德國簽訂《英德海軍協定》，允許其擴建海軍。及後，在慕尼黑會議中亦認為德國要求取得蘇台德區也只是基於巴黎和約將德國排除在「民族自決」外，誤信德國取回應有權益後便會停止侵略。 可見，巴黎和約的是導致綏靖政策出現的重要，繼而才助長了德國的侵略，重要性較綏靖政策大。
總括而言，巴黎和約造就了德國和意大利分別成為了最不滿的戰敗國和戰勝國，成為兩國極權主義興起的要因，同時「民族自決」原則的不公和不當也營造起有利的環境予侵略國侵略。 因此，巴黎和約早已埋下二次大戰爆發的伏線，在很大程度上導致了二次大戰的爆發。
To what extent did the Paris Peace Settlement (1919-23) cause the Second World War? Explain your answer with reference to European history in the period 1919-39.
The Second World War broke out merely 20 years after the First World War ended. Among the reasons behind, the failings of the Paris Peace Settlement were undeniably attributable
to the war. Not only did the Settlement greatly upset Germany and Italy, but it also brought about issues related to national self-determination that eventually created an
environment favorable to aggression. The Settlement made a world war inevitable and thus caused the Second World War to a large extent. Although the rise of totalitarianism,
the Great Depression and the appeasement policy were also causes of the Second World War, they were clearly of less importance in comparison.
The Paris Peace Settlement stirred up discontent in Germany and led to the revival of German aggression that triggered the Second World War. The Treaty of Versailles was extremely harsh as it not only required Germany to pay US$33 billion in reparations but also restricted the German army to 100 thousand men and stated that Germany shall bear the sole responsibility for the First World War. The Treaty thus aroused great hostility among the Germans towards the victorious powers. In addition, the Weimar Republic signed several treaties against the country’s national interests and thus failed to solicit public support after its establishment. Under these circumstances, Hitler from the Nazi Party gained popular support under the banner of overthrowing the Treaty of Versailles, and he did break the Treaty step by step after his rise to power in 1933. For example, he unilaterally renounced the military clauses of the Treaty and announced the reintroduction of conscription as well as the establishment of naval and air forces in 1935, and he even scrapped the Treaty blatantly by remilitarizing the Rhineland in 1936. Worse still, motivated by the humiliation of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany wanted vengeance and hoped to resume its status as a strong power. The Germans thus started territorial expansion to compensate for the national humiliation they suffered from the Paris Peace Settlement. For instance, Germany invaded the whole of Czechoslovakia in March 1939. Afterwards, Germany even launched a sudden attack on Poland on 1 September 1939 to reclaim Danzig, which was ceded to Poland under the Treaty of Versailles and subsequently separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany. The Second World War eventually broke out due to various issues caused by the Treaty of Versailles. Therefore, the Paris Peace Settlement stirred up revengeful sentiments in Germany and made the Second World War inevitable.
The Paris Peace Settlement also made Italy the most discontented victorious power that became one of the aggressors causing the Second World War. At the London Conference of 1915, Britain and France lured Italy into alliance with the Entente Powers with the promise of territories, including Fiume and Dalmatia; however, at the Paris Peace Conference, Britain and France did not live up to their promise and only gave Tyrol and Istria to Italy under the Treaty of Saint-Germain. Their failure to honor their promise greatly upset Italy and made it the most frustrated victorious power, sowing the seeds of the rise of Mussolini in 1922 and the aggression of Fascist Italy afterwards. For example, the Mussolini administration bombarded the Greek island of Corfu in 1923, forced Yugoslavia to cede Fiume in 1924 and established protectorate over Albania in 1926, making continued acts of aggression to make up for the territories and glory the Italians should have gained from the Paris Peace Settlement. In the late 1930s, Mussolini became even more ambitious and established the Berlin-Rome Axis (1936) with Germany, which also suffered humiliation from the Settlement, to support each other’s aggression. After the German invasion of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, Italy also sent troops to Albania in April of the same year to demonstrate its strength. In May 1939, the two countries even signed the Pact of Steel that formalized their aggressive alliance. The Second World War eventually became inevitable with the aggression of Germany and Italy. It was clear that the Paris Peace Settlement stirred up dissatisfaction among the Italians and turned Italy into a major accomplice that contributed to the world war.
The principle of ‘national self-determination’ established in the Paris Peace Settlement also became a major cause of the Second World War. At the Paris Peace Conference, Woodrow Wilson proposed the principle of ‘national self-determination’, under which people with racial or ethnic homogeneity could exercise self-governance and establish an independent state. For example, nations such as Poland and Czechoslovakia were established under the Treaty of Saint-Germain. However, the principle was heavily biased since Germany as a defeated nation was excluded from it, and the victorious powers even transferred German-inhabited territories to other countries. For example, the Treaty of Versailles prohibited Germany’s unification with Austria with a German population of 6 million, and the Treaty of Saint-Germain transferred the Sudetenland with 3 million German inhabitants to Czechoslovakia. Such unfair arrangements stirred up discontent among the Germans who became determined to overthrow the treaties. For instance, Germany carried out Anschluss with Austria and annexed the Sudetenland in 1938. In addition, the Paris Peace Settlement contained no efforts to maintain the balance of power. The newly-established nation states were too weak and lacked economic and military strength to resist the powers surrounding them, becoming easy targets for aggressors. For instance, in 1939, Germany annexed Czechoslovakia with practically no resistance and even launched a sudden attack on Poland in September of the year that sparked the Second World War. It was clear that the unfairness and failings of the principle of ‘national self-determination’ laid down in the Paris Peace Settlement acted as the catalyst for the Second World War.
Compared to the Paris Peace Settlement of significant importance, other factors only caused the Second World War to a small extent.
First of all, the rise of totalitarianism was also an important cause of the Second World War but it was not as important as the Paris Peace Settlement. Indeed, the acts of aggression by totalitarian states gradually dragged the world into a terrible war. For example, in 1937, Germany, Italy and Japan established the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis, an aggressive alliance that started invasions across the world. Their acts of aggression included the Italian invasion of Albania in 1939, the German annexation of Austria and the Sudetenland in 1938, and the German annexation of Czechoslovakia in 1939. Eventually, the Second World War was sparked off by the German sudden attack on Poland. However, the Paris Peace Settlement was more important than the rise of totalitarianism. In terms of causality, the Settlement was the reason behind the rise of totalitarianism. As for Italy, it was the failure to get the promised territories in Fiume and Dalmatia under the Settlement that made the Italian government unpopular. Taking advantage of the post-WW1 economic hardship and political instability, Mussolini organized the March on Rome, after resulted in Mussolini’s ascending to power in 1922 and his subsequent acts of aggression. As for Germany, Hitler also took advantage of the discontent with the Treaty of Versailles among the Germans to take control of the country. His intention to break out of the restraints imposed by the Treaty and resume Germany’s status as a power eventually caused the Second World War. It was clear that the Settlement was the fundamental cause of the world war.
Secondly, the Great Depression was certainly important in causing the Second World War but not as important as the Paris Peace Settlement. Not only did the Great Depression of 1929 drag democratic powers such as Britain and France into economic downturn and prompt them to adopt the appeasement policy to offer concessions to aggressor nations, but it also created a harsh economic environment that contributed to the rise of Hitler from the Nazi Party. In order to improve the German economy and look for ‘living space’, Hitler opted for territorial expansion after his rise to power, as exemplified by the German annexation of Czechoslovakia in 1939, to obtain more territories and resources for the nation. Germany’s continued acts of aggression eventually led to the Second World War. However, the Paris Peace Settlement was still more important. In terms of causality, the Treaty of Versailles enabled the domino effect of the Great Depression that embroiled Germany. Since the Treaty required Germany to pay an astronomical amount of US$33 billion in reparations, Germany had no choice but to rely on American loans, including the Dawes Plan (1924) and Young Plan (1929). Therefore, when America was hit by the Great Depression and withdrew its loans to Germany, Germany was also affected by this domino effect and more than 6 million German people were consequently unemployed. The economic turmoil led to the rise of Hitler and his acts of aggression afterwards. It was clear that the failings of the Treaty of Versailles had greater impact than the Great Depression.
Thirdly, the appeasement policy was also one of the factors that caused the Second World War but not as important as the Paris Peace Settlement. Britain and France adopted the policy of appeasement, which was to make concessions to aggressor nations in an attempt to satisfy their ambitions. For example, the two nations arranged the cession of the Sudetenland to Germany at the Munich Conference of 1938. The policy turned out to be counterproductive and only led to the German invasion of the remainder of Czechoslovakia in 1939, contributing greatly to the Second World War. However, the Paris Peace Settlement was still more important. In terms of causality, the flaws of the Settlement provided grounds for the appeasement policy. Deeming the Treaty of Versailles to be too harsh to Germany, Britain was inclined to sympathize with Germany and considered it appropriate for Germany to get back its entitled interests. Therefore, in cases such as Germany’s reintroduction of conscription and naval build-up in 1935, Britain not only turned a blind eye but also signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement to justify Germany’s naval expansion. At the Munich Conference, Britain also believed that Germany’s demand for the Sudetenland was based on the fact that Germany was excluded from the principle of national self-determination, holding a mistaken belief that Germany would stop its aggression once it got all the interests it was entitled to. It was clear that the Paris Peace Settlement was an important factor that led to the appeasement policy and promoted German aggression, and thus the Settlement was of greater importance than the policy of appeasement.
In conclusion, the Paris Peace Settlement made Germany and Italy the most discontented defeated nation and victorious power respectively and contributed greatly to the rise of totalitarianism in these two countries. Meanwhile, the unfairness and flaws of the principle of national self-determination created a perfect environment for aggression to breed. Therefore, the Paris Peace Settlement paved the way for the Second World War and caused this war of global scale to a large extent.
The Paris Peace Settlement stirred up discontent in Germany and led to the revival of German aggression that triggered the Second World War. The Treaty of Versailles was extremely harsh as it not only required Germany to pay US$33 billion in reparations but also restricted the German army to 100 thousand men and stated that Germany shall bear the sole responsibility for the First World War. The Treaty thus aroused great hostility among the Germans towards the victorious powers. In addition, the Weimar Republic signed several treaties against the country’s national interests and thus failed to solicit public support after its establishment. Under these circumstances, Hitler from the Nazi Party gained popular support under the banner of overthrowing the Treaty of Versailles, and he did break the Treaty step by step after his rise to power in 1933. For example, he unilaterally renounced the military clauses of the Treaty and announced the reintroduction of conscription as well as the establishment of naval and air forces in 1935, and he even scrapped the Treaty blatantly by remilitarizing the Rhineland in 1936. Worse still, motivated by the humiliation of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany wanted vengeance and hoped to resume its status as a strong power. The Germans thus started territorial expansion to compensate for the national humiliation they suffered from the Paris Peace Settlement. For instance, Germany invaded the whole of Czechoslovakia in March 1939. Afterwards, Germany even launched a sudden attack on Poland on 1 September 1939 to reclaim Danzig, which was ceded to Poland under the Treaty of Versailles and subsequently separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany. The Second World War eventually broke out due to various issues caused by the Treaty of Versailles. Therefore, the Paris Peace Settlement stirred up revengeful sentiments in Germany and made the Second World War inevitable.
The Paris Peace Settlement also made Italy the most discontented victorious power that became one of the aggressors causing the Second World War. At the London Conference of 1915, Britain and France lured Italy into alliance with the Entente Powers with the promise of territories, including Fiume and Dalmatia; however, at the Paris Peace Conference, Britain and France did not live up to their promise and only gave Tyrol and Istria to Italy under the Treaty of Saint-Germain. Their failure to honor their promise greatly upset Italy and made it the most frustrated victorious power, sowing the seeds of the rise of Mussolini in 1922 and the aggression of Fascist Italy afterwards. For example, the Mussolini administration bombarded the Greek island of Corfu in 1923, forced Yugoslavia to cede Fiume in 1924 and established protectorate over Albania in 1926, making continued acts of aggression to make up for the territories and glory the Italians should have gained from the Paris Peace Settlement. In the late 1930s, Mussolini became even more ambitious and established the Berlin-Rome Axis (1936) with Germany, which also suffered humiliation from the Settlement, to support each other’s aggression. After the German invasion of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, Italy also sent troops to Albania in April of the same year to demonstrate its strength. In May 1939, the two countries even signed the Pact of Steel that formalized their aggressive alliance. The Second World War eventually became inevitable with the aggression of Germany and Italy. It was clear that the Paris Peace Settlement stirred up dissatisfaction among the Italians and turned Italy into a major accomplice that contributed to the world war.
The principle of ‘national self-determination’ established in the Paris Peace Settlement also became a major cause of the Second World War. At the Paris Peace Conference, Woodrow Wilson proposed the principle of ‘national self-determination’, under which people with racial or ethnic homogeneity could exercise self-governance and establish an independent state. For example, nations such as Poland and Czechoslovakia were established under the Treaty of Saint-Germain. However, the principle was heavily biased since Germany as a defeated nation was excluded from it, and the victorious powers even transferred German-inhabited territories to other countries. For example, the Treaty of Versailles prohibited Germany’s unification with Austria with a German population of 6 million, and the Treaty of Saint-Germain transferred the Sudetenland with 3 million German inhabitants to Czechoslovakia. Such unfair arrangements stirred up discontent among the Germans who became determined to overthrow the treaties. For instance, Germany carried out Anschluss with Austria and annexed the Sudetenland in 1938. In addition, the Paris Peace Settlement contained no efforts to maintain the balance of power. The newly-established nation states were too weak and lacked economic and military strength to resist the powers surrounding them, becoming easy targets for aggressors. For instance, in 1939, Germany annexed Czechoslovakia with practically no resistance and even launched a sudden attack on Poland in September of the year that sparked the Second World War. It was clear that the unfairness and failings of the principle of ‘national self-determination’ laid down in the Paris Peace Settlement acted as the catalyst for the Second World War.
Compared to the Paris Peace Settlement of significant importance, other factors only caused the Second World War to a small extent.
First of all, the rise of totalitarianism was also an important cause of the Second World War but it was not as important as the Paris Peace Settlement. Indeed, the acts of aggression by totalitarian states gradually dragged the world into a terrible war. For example, in 1937, Germany, Italy and Japan established the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis, an aggressive alliance that started invasions across the world. Their acts of aggression included the Italian invasion of Albania in 1939, the German annexation of Austria and the Sudetenland in 1938, and the German annexation of Czechoslovakia in 1939. Eventually, the Second World War was sparked off by the German sudden attack on Poland. However, the Paris Peace Settlement was more important than the rise of totalitarianism. In terms of causality, the Settlement was the reason behind the rise of totalitarianism. As for Italy, it was the failure to get the promised territories in Fiume and Dalmatia under the Settlement that made the Italian government unpopular. Taking advantage of the post-WW1 economic hardship and political instability, Mussolini organized the March on Rome, after resulted in Mussolini’s ascending to power in 1922 and his subsequent acts of aggression. As for Germany, Hitler also took advantage of the discontent with the Treaty of Versailles among the Germans to take control of the country. His intention to break out of the restraints imposed by the Treaty and resume Germany’s status as a power eventually caused the Second World War. It was clear that the Settlement was the fundamental cause of the world war.
Secondly, the Great Depression was certainly important in causing the Second World War but not as important as the Paris Peace Settlement. Not only did the Great Depression of 1929 drag democratic powers such as Britain and France into economic downturn and prompt them to adopt the appeasement policy to offer concessions to aggressor nations, but it also created a harsh economic environment that contributed to the rise of Hitler from the Nazi Party. In order to improve the German economy and look for ‘living space’, Hitler opted for territorial expansion after his rise to power, as exemplified by the German annexation of Czechoslovakia in 1939, to obtain more territories and resources for the nation. Germany’s continued acts of aggression eventually led to the Second World War. However, the Paris Peace Settlement was still more important. In terms of causality, the Treaty of Versailles enabled the domino effect of the Great Depression that embroiled Germany. Since the Treaty required Germany to pay an astronomical amount of US$33 billion in reparations, Germany had no choice but to rely on American loans, including the Dawes Plan (1924) and Young Plan (1929). Therefore, when America was hit by the Great Depression and withdrew its loans to Germany, Germany was also affected by this domino effect and more than 6 million German people were consequently unemployed. The economic turmoil led to the rise of Hitler and his acts of aggression afterwards. It was clear that the failings of the Treaty of Versailles had greater impact than the Great Depression.
Thirdly, the appeasement policy was also one of the factors that caused the Second World War but not as important as the Paris Peace Settlement. Britain and France adopted the policy of appeasement, which was to make concessions to aggressor nations in an attempt to satisfy their ambitions. For example, the two nations arranged the cession of the Sudetenland to Germany at the Munich Conference of 1938. The policy turned out to be counterproductive and only led to the German invasion of the remainder of Czechoslovakia in 1939, contributing greatly to the Second World War. However, the Paris Peace Settlement was still more important. In terms of causality, the flaws of the Settlement provided grounds for the appeasement policy. Deeming the Treaty of Versailles to be too harsh to Germany, Britain was inclined to sympathize with Germany and considered it appropriate for Germany to get back its entitled interests. Therefore, in cases such as Germany’s reintroduction of conscription and naval build-up in 1935, Britain not only turned a blind eye but also signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement to justify Germany’s naval expansion. At the Munich Conference, Britain also believed that Germany’s demand for the Sudetenland was based on the fact that Germany was excluded from the principle of national self-determination, holding a mistaken belief that Germany would stop its aggression once it got all the interests it was entitled to. It was clear that the Paris Peace Settlement was an important factor that led to the appeasement policy and promoted German aggression, and thus the Settlement was of greater importance than the policy of appeasement.
In conclusion, the Paris Peace Settlement made Germany and Italy the most discontented defeated nation and victorious power respectively and contributed greatly to the rise of totalitarianism in these two countries. Meanwhile, the unfairness and flaws of the principle of national self-determination created a perfect environment for aggression to breed. Therefore, the Paris Peace Settlement paved the way for the Second World War and caused this war of global scale to a large extent.
